November 1997
Scientific information on stalking in the United States has been limited, despite unprecedented media, legal, and legislative attention to the subject over the past decade. To better understand the broader context of violence in which stalking occurs, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) collaborated in a comprehensive survey of violence against
women. The National Violence Against Women Survey, conducted by the Center for Policy Research, collected data from 8,000 women and 8,000 men 18 years of age or older on a broad range of issues related to violence.
This Research Preview discusses the stalking aspects of the study. Further findings from the survey are anticipated by spring 1998. With regard to stalking, the survey
collected data on:
- The prevalence of stalking.
- The characteristics of offenders, victims, and stalking behaviors.
- Victims’ perceptions of why they are stalked.
- The co-occurrence of stalking and domestic violence.
- Victims’ responses to stalking, including their involvement with the justice system.
- The psychological and social consequences of stalking.
Survey findings indicated that stalking is a bigger problem than previously thought, affecting about 1.4 million victims annually. The survey showed that stalking was
strongly linked to the controlling behavior and physical, emotional, and sexual abuse perpetrated against women by intimate partners. About half of all female stalking
victims reported their victimization to the police and about 25 percent obtained a restraining order.
To screen for stalking victimization, the survey asked about specific harassing and threatening behaviors respondents had experienced repeatedly from marital and
cohabitating partners, friends, acquaintances, relatives, and strangers. The word “stalking” was not used in the survey. Researchers defined stalking conservatively—as “a course of conduct directed at a specific person that involves repeated physical or visual proximity, nonconsensual communication, or verbal, written, or implied threats” sufficient to cause fear in a reasonable person.1
The survey was fielded between November 1995 and May 1996. The national sample of households was generated through random-digit dialing; interviews averaged 25 minutes and were conducted using a computer-assisted telephone interviewing system. Of those who started the interview, 97 percent of women and 98 percent of men completed it. ..more.. by Patricia Tjaden, Ph.D., Center for Policy Research
September 16, 2007
The Crime of Stalking: How Big Is the Problem?
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH VIOLENCE IN STALKING AND
2002
Abstract:
Differentiating which stalkers represent a significant risk of violence from those who pose less risk has significant implications for victims, clinicians, and the legal system. The authors analyzed 204 stalking and harassment cases referred for court-ordered mental health evaluation in New York City between 1994 and 1998 to identify correlates of violent behavior. Violence, defined as any unwanted physical contact or confrontation with a weapon, occurred in 34% of cases, although severe violence occurred in only 12 cases. A multivariate logistic regression analysis containing five variables (age below 30, less than high school education, minority race, prior threats, and previous intimate relationship between victim and offender) was applied to an ROC analysis, yielding an area under the curve of .803. The implications of these data for risk assessment in stalking and harassment are discussed. ..more.. by BARRY ROSENFELD, Fordham University, RONNIE HARMON, Bellevue Hospital Forensic Psychiatry Clinic
Fact Sheet on Stalking
2000
Stalking: Define the Crime
Stalking is a repetitive pattern of unwanted, harassing or threatening behavior committed by one person against another. Acts include: telephone harassment, being followed, receiving unwanted gifts, and other similar forms of intrusive behavior. All states and the Federal Government have passed anti-stalking legislation. Definitions of stalking found in state anti-stalking statutes vary in their language, although most define stalking as "the willful, malicious, and repeated following and harassing of another person that threatens his or her safety" (1).
How common is Stalking?
The National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAW) is a landmark study that collected information about stalkingm a nationally representative sample of 8,000 women and 8,000 men across the United States (2). The survey found that 8% of women and 2% of men have been stalked at some time during their lives. This means that 1 out of every 12 women, and 1 out of ever 45 men have been stalked during their lives (2).
Who stalks whom?
Men commit most stalking. Four out of every five stalking victims are women (2). While, high-profile celebrity stalking cases generate considerable media attention, they are relatively rare. Most stalking occurs between people who know each other. Less than one-fourth of women, and about one-third of men are stalked by strangers. Women are most likely to be stalked by a current or former intimate partner during the relationship, after it ends, or at both points in time. ..more.. by National Violence Against Women Prevention Research Center © Copyright 2000
THE TOLL OF STALKING: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FEATURES OF STALKING AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF VICTIMS
December 2000
Abstract
Information on the psychological consequences of stalking on victims is scarce. Research has not reported yet about standardised measures of psychopathology or the impact of specific stalking features on victims’ psychopathology. The present study aimed to investigate whether stalking victims have a heightened prevalence of psychopathology, and the extent to which symptom levels are associated with stalking features. Stalking victims (N=246) completed the General Health Questionnaire and provided information on specific features of their stalking experiences. High levels of psychopathology were found among stalking victims. Symptom levels were comparable to those of psychiatric outpatients. Seventy-seven percent had a symptom level indicating a diagnosable psychiatric disorder. The frequency, pervasiveness, duration and cessation of stalking were associated with symptom levels, but explained only 13 percent of the variance of the level of distress. It is concluded that stalking victims generally have many symptoms of psychopathology. The symptoms are largely independent of features of their stalking experience. These findings indicate that better therapy outcomes can be expected from therapies focusing on boosting general coping skills and on decreasing general vulnerability than from therapies focusing on specifically dealing with the stalking situation.
Excerpts:
Respondents
The sample consisted of 246 victims who all reported stalking episodes over a minimum of one month, and involving more than one intrusive behaviours. Eighty-nine percent were female and 11% were male. The youngest victim was 19 years old and the oldest 82 years (M=43.5 years, SD=10.1). The majority of the victims were living alone (70%), employed (59%) and having children (76%). Twelve percent were local or national celebrities, of which one had become a national celebrity after she had killed her stalker. In 67% of the cases, there was a prior intimate relationship with the stalker, 27% were prior acquaintances and 7% of the stalkers were strangers. 87% of the victims were stalked by a male stalker.
Results
Features of stalking behaviour
All victims reported multiple stalking behaviours. Many victims reported receiving harassing telephone calls (see Table 1). More than half of these telephone calls were made at night and included continuous pleas, negative remarks, death treats or continuous silence. One victim reported approximately 50 telephone calls each day and night. Large numbers of victims reported that stalking behaviours included following, surveillance, receiving harassing letters, unwanted approach, unlawful entry in their homes, damage/theft of property, receiving threats, and physical assaults. Approximately half (52%) spontaneously reported other stalking behaviours, such as rumour spreading, ordering of goods, false accusations, injuring of pets and abduction. A small minority reported bizarre or even unlikely behaviours. One woman claimed to be stalked by her gynaecologist who “wanted to see her naked again”. Another woman claimed to be stalked by the police and by two strangers who allegedly spoke to her through the walls of her living room. A third woman claimed to be followed “everywhere, 24 hours per day by people who were never seen”. There were also some cases whereby fairly normal behaviours were reported to be stalking behaviours. For instance, one woman living nearby a dancing school claimed that groups of people were sometimes loitering nearby.
Of the ten stalking behaviours that were explored in the present study, the victims reported a median number of six stalking behaviours (Range 2-10, M=6.1, SD=1.7). Only 7 percent reported that they were not exposed to intrusive following behaviours (surveillance of victim’s home, following, unlawful entry, unwanted approach) and only 15 percent reported that they were not exposed to violent behaviours (destruction/theft of property, threats, assaults). The majority of victims reported exposure to several intrusive behaviours (Median=3, M=2.6, SD=1.2) and several violent behaviours (Median=2, M=1.6, SD=1.0). These findings indicate that the stalking behaviours were generally pervasive in the present study.
In Table 1 it can be seen that many stalking behaviours have fairly equal distributions in the different samples of victims. The vast majority of the victims in all studies reported that direct unwanted approach, following, surveillance of their homes and receiving harassing telephone calls were the most common stalking behaviours. Direct unwanted approach and physical assault appear somewhat more common in the Dutch sample, whilst receiving letters appears somewhat less common in the Dutch sample. Due to the fact that destruction of property also included theft in the Dutch study, this stalking behaviour was more common in the Dutch sample. Nonetheless, the fairly equal distributions on the different stalking behaviours indicate that to a large extent these are similar in different countries. ..more.. by E Blaauw, F W Winkel, Department of Clinical Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands, E Arensman, Division of Clinical & Health Psychology, Leiden University, The Netherlands
Prevalence and Health Consequences of Stalking
Prevalence and Health Consequences of Stalking --- Louisiana, 1998--1999
Stalking is a form of violence that may lead to physical injury or homicide and may have disabling social and psychological consequences (1,2). Although the legal definition varies among jurisdictions, all 50 states have antistalking laws (3). Louisiana defines stalking as the willful, malicious, and repeated following or harassing of another person with the intent to place that person in fear of death or serious bodily injury (4). Information is limited on the prevalence of stalking
and its impact on the victim (3,5). To gather population-based surveillance data on stalking and other forms of interpersonal violence, the Louisiana Office of Public Health conducted a random-digit--dialed telephone survey among residents regarding experiences and perceptions related to safety and violence. This report summarizes the results of the survey, which indicate that 15% of the women surveyed reported being stalked during their lifetime.
Data were collected from Louisiana residents aged >18 years on a monthly basis from July 1, 1998, to June 30, 1999. Eligible households were selected randomly from a list of possible telephone numbers that had been filtered to eliminate unused and business exchanges. The respondent interviewed from each household was selected randomly. If an eligible household refused to participate or if the desired respondent could not be reached, a substitute number was selected randomly from the list. The survey ensured confidentiality, and respondents gave informed consent
for participation.
Of 4763 eligible respondents, 1808 (38%) completed the interview; 1171 (65%) were women. This report describes the findings among women respondents. Age and race of survey participants matched the 1990 census data for Louisiana, except that women aged 18--24 years composed 8% of the survey sample and composed 14% of women in Louisiana. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 99 years (median: 46 years); 71% were white, and 28% were black, whereas among female Louisiana residents aged >18
years, 69% were white, and 29% were black. Participants were classified as having ever been stalked if they answered "yes" to the question, "Have you ever been stalked, harassed, or threatened with violence for more than one month by someone who would not leave you alone?" Women who reported having been stalked also were asked whether they had experienced physical injuries and stress-related problems and the level of fear invoked by stalking.
One hundred seventy-six (15%) women reported having been stalked during their lifetime, and 23 (2%) women reported currently being stalked. Of the 176, 132 (75%) women reported they believed the stalking to be somewhat dangerous or life threatening; of these, 89 (67%) indicated they had reported the situation to the police. Other measures reported to stop harassment included changing usual behavior (70%), moving (36%), purchasing a gun (11%), and obtaining a restraining order (11%) (Table 1). Forty-two (32%) of the 132 women reported injuries from being assaulted by their stalker, such as swelling, cuts, scratches, bruises, strains or sprains, burns, bites, broken teeth, or knife or gunshot wounds. Seventy-one (55%) women reported experiencing stress that interfered with their regular activities for >1 month.
Among the women who perceived their stalking to be dangerous or life threatening, 67 (51%) identified the perpetrators as someone with whom they had had an intimate relationship (i.e., boyfriend, former boyfriend, spouse, or former spouse); no stalking was reported among same sex partners. Forty-three (33%) women identified the perpetrator as someone known to them but other than an intimate partner (i.e.,
relative, acquaintance, friend, or other). Seventeen (13%) women were stalked by a stranger, and five (4%) were stalked by a perpetrator that they were unable to identify.
Those women who had been in an intimate relationship with their stalker were more than four times as likely to report that they had sustained an injury than those women who had not been in an intimate relationship with their stalker (35 of 67 versus seven of 60; relative risk=4.5; 95% confidence interval=2.2--9.3). None of the women who reported having been stalked by a stranger and who believed the stalking was somewhat dangerous or life threatening reported sustaining an injury.
Reported by: M Kohn, MD, State Epidemiologist, Oregon Health Div. H Flood, MPH, J Chase, MSPH, PM McMahon, PhD, Injury Research and Prevention Section, Louisiana Office of Public Health. Family and Intimate Partner Violence Prevention Team, Div of Violence Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, CDC.
Editorial Note:
The findings in this report indicate that 15% of women surveyed in Louisiana reported having been stalked during their lifetime. Social and psychological sequelae of stalking were more prevalent than physical sequelae. More women reported experiencing stress from being stalked than experiencing physical injury.
The findings in this report are consistent with data from the National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAWS) (3); both surveys showed that stalking had adverse psychological and social consequences. NVAWS did not measure physical injuries resulting from stalking because their definition of stalking precluded physical contact; however, NVAWS separately measured physical violence and found that 81% of those reporting stalking also reported having been physically assaulted by the
same person (4).
The findings in this report are subject to at least two limitations. First, quantifying the validity of self-reports of stalking is difficult because no "gold standard" exists for comparison. Additional research is needed on experiences of violence to determine the validity and reliability of different data collection methods (e.g., face-to-face interviews, telephone surveys, and paper and pencil surveys). Second, the population surveyed may not be representative of Louisiana. Because persons without telephones were not surveyed, and because of the low
response rate, nonparticipants may differ from participants on study outcomes. However, the racial composition of survey participants was representative of the state.
The data in this report suggest that reliable estimates of stalking may be difficult to obtain using traditional data sources (e.g., health-care providers and law enforcement agencies) because 68% of the women who experienced stalking did not sustain a physical injury and 33% did not report the stalking to the police. A population-based survey may help characterize the burden of stalking and other types of interpersonal violence. However, the identification of victims in health-care and law enforcement settings also may help characterize persons at high risk for injury from stalking and enable referral of those persons for services and secondary prevention activities.
Surveillance is the basis for the epidemiologic approach to public health problems (6). If violence prevention is to be approached using the public health model, an accurate description of the problem is the first step (7). State- and local-level data on the prevalence of interpersonal violence can assist health departments in tailoring intervention programs to the specific needs and conditions in their
communities.
References
1.Meloy JR. Stalking: an old behavior, a new crime. Psychiatry Clin
North Am 1999;22:85--99.
2.Pathe M, Mullen PE. The impact of stalkers on their victims. Br J
Psychiatry 1997;170:12--7.
3.Tjaden P, Thoennes N. Stalking in America: findings from the National
Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC: National Institute of
Justice, and US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC, April
1998; publication NCJ 169592.
4.The National Center for Victims of Crime. Stalking legislation:
Louisiana: Rev. Stat. Section 14.40.2 Stalking. 1992. Amended 1997.
Available http://www.ncv.org/law/stlk.la.htm. Accessed July 2000.
5.Fremouw WJ, Westrup D. Stalking on campus: the prevalence and
strategies for coping with stalking. J Forensic Sci 1997;442:666--9.
6.Teutsch SM, Churchill RE, eds. Principles and practice of public
health surveillance. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
7.Foege WH, Rosenberg ML, Mercy JA. Public health and violence
prevention. Current Issues in Public Health 1995;1:2--9.
TABLE 1. Characteristics of stalking among women reporting the
experience as dangerous or life threatening -- Louisiana, 1998-1999*
Characteristic No. (%)
Measures taken to stop stalking †
Changed routine 93 (70.5)
Reported stalking to police 89 (67.4)
Moved 48 (36.4)
Purchased a gun 15 (11.4)
Obtained a restraining order 14 (10.6)
Experienced physical injuries
as a result of stalking 42 (31.8)
Experienced stress
as a result of stalking § 71 (55.5)
Identity of stalker
Former or current intimate
partner acting alone 62 (47.0)
Some other known person acting alone 43 (32.6)
Former or current intimate partner
and another known person 5 ( 3.8)
Stranger 17 (12.9)
Unable to identify stalker 5 ( 3.8)
* n=132.
† Numbers may exceed total because respondents could report taking
multiple measures.
§ Four persons were excluded from this specific analysis because of
interviewer error. ..more.. by
Stalking and its effects
Pak J Med Sci. January - March 2002, 18(1) 36-41
Objective: To examine the social, occupational, psychological and emotional effects of stalking.
Method: A group of 100 subjects of stalking who attended psychiatry O.P.D. at Jinnah Hospital and Private Clinic of the authors for advice and help were included in this study.
Subject: One hundred subjects (88 females and 12 males) with age range 18-45 years from city of Lahore.
Results: Majority of the victims were subjected to multiple forms of harassment including being followed, repeatedly approached, received many letters and telephone calls for period varying from 6 weeks to 6 months. Threats were received by 58 subjects and 38 were physically assaulted; majority (94%) victims made major changes in their social and work lives with 52% having decreased work capacity and 12% moving their place of residence. Increased levels of anxiety were reported by 83%, aggressive or guilt thoughts 65%, intrusive recollections by 55%, with changes in appetite 48%, disturbance in sleep 74% and suicidal ruminations were acknowledged by 12% of the subjects. Forty seven percent full filled criteria for diagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder with further 38% having the evidence of numbness to responses.
Conclusion: This study indicates the extent of the social, occupational and psychological damage sustained by the subjects of persistent stalking and underlines the inadequacy of current legal, medical responses to the needs of these subjects. ..more.. by Shamaila Ijaz Haider -and- Ijaz Haider (Have PDF Copy on Disk)
